Entomopathogenic nematodes such as Steinernema carpocapsae and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora have been used to control white grubs that feed turfgrass in your yard. When applied in turf these nematodes search and infect white grubs. They infect grub insects through the natural openings and once inside they release symbiotic bacteria in the body cavity of grub. Bacteria multiply and kill insect within 48 hours of infection.
Desiccated insect cadavers: An easy method for delivery of entomopathogenic nematodes in the field /
It has been demonstrated that entomopathogenic nematodes can be easily delivered through desiccated insect cadavers. It has been shown that the nematodes can survive and preserve their virulence capacities in desiccated insect cadavers. These desiccated cadavers are easy to apply and when cadavers come in contact with water or rehydrated infective juveniles will emerge out to seek new host. Read following research papers on application of entomopathogenic nematodes through insect cadavers.
Ansari, M.A., Hussain, M. and Moens, M. 2009. Formulation and application of entomopathogenic nematode-infected cadavers for control of Hoplia philanthus in turf grass. Pest Management Science 65: 367-374.
Creighton, C.S. and Fassuliotis, G. 1985. Heterorhabditis sp. (Nematoda: Heterorhabditidae): a nematode parasite isolated from the banded cucumber beetle Diabrotica balteata. Journal of Nematology 17: 150–153.
Del Valle, E.E., Dolinksi, C., and Souza, R.M. 2008. Dispersal of Heterorhabditis baujardi LPP7 (Nematoda : Rhabditida) applied to the soil as infected host cadavers. International Journal of Pest Management 54: 115-122.
Del Valle, E.E., Dolinksi, C., Barreto, E.L.S. and Souza, R.M. 2009. Effect of cadaver coatings on emergence and infectivity of the entomopathogenic nematode Heterorhabditis baujardi LPP7 (Rhabditida: Heterorhabditidae) and the removal of cadavers by ants. Biological Control 50: 21–24.
Del Valle, E.E., Dolinksi, C., Barreto, E.L.S., Souza, R.M. and Samuels, R.I. 2008. Efficacy of Heterorhabditis baujardi LP77 (Nematoda: Rhabditida) applied in Galleria mellonella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) insect cadavers to Conotrachelus psidii (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) larvae. Biocontrol Science and Technology 18: 33–41.
Perez, E.E., Lewis, E.E and Shapiro-Ilan, D.I. 2003. Impact of host cadaver on survival and infectivity of entomopathogenic nematodes (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae) under desiccating conditions. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 82: 111–118.
Shapiro, D.I and Lewis, E.E. 1999. Comparison of entomopathogenic nematode infectivity from infected hosts versus aqueous suspension. Environmental Entomology 28: 907–911.
Shapiro, D.I. and Glazer, I. 1996. Comparison of entomopathogenic nematode dispersal from infected hosts versus aqueous suspension. Environmental Entomology 25: 1455–1461.
Shapiro-Ilan, D.I., Lewis, E.E., Behle, R.W and McGuire, M.R. 2001. Formulation of entomopathogenic nematode-infected-cadavers. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 78: 17–23.
Shapiro-Ilan, D.I., Lewis, E.E., Tedders, W.L. and Son, Y. 2003. Superior efficacy observed in entomopathogenic nematodes applied in infected-host cadavers compared with application in aqueous suspension, Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 83: 270–272.
Shapiro-Ilan, D.I., Tedders, W.L. and Lewis, E.E., 2008. Application of entomopathogenic nematode-infected cadavers from hard-bodied arthropods for insect suppression. US Patent 7374,773.
Spence, K.O., Stevens, G.N., Arimoto, H., Ruiz-Vega, J., Kaya, H.K. and Lewis, E.E. 2011. Effect of insect cadaver desiccation and soil water potential during rehydration on entomopathogenic nematode (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae) production and virulence. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 106: 268-273.
Biological control of termites using entomopathogenic nematodes /
Biological control of termites using entomopathogenic nematodes Recently, it has been reported that the TP strain of an entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema riobrave have potential to control subterranean termites, a major insect pest of wood structures and wood products.
Read following papers on interaction between termites and entomopathogenic nematodes.
Yu, H., Gouge, D.H. and Shapiro-Ilan, D.I. 2010. A Novel Strain of Steinernema riobrave (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) Possesses Superior Virulence to Subterranean Termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Journal of Nematology 42: 91-95.
Yu, H., Gouge, D.H., Stock, S.P. and Baker, P.B. 2008. Development of entomopathogenic nematodes (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae; Heterorhabditidae) in desert subterranean termite Heterotermes aureus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Journal of Nematology. 40: 311-317.
Fungicidal activity of an antibacterial compound from entomopathogenic nematode symbiotic bacterium. /
Recently, Yang et al. (2011) tested a fungicidal activity of an antibacterial compound called Xenocoumacin 1 (Xcn1) from symbiotic bacterium, Xenorhabdus nematophila var. pekingensis against Potato late blight disease causing fungus, Phytophthora infestans. These authors reported that this antibacterial compound strongly inhibits P. infestans mycelium growth and sporangia production. Read following papers on antibacterial compounds from entomopathogenic nematode symbiotic bacteria.
Akhurst, R.J. 1982. Aantibiotic-activity of xenorhabdus spp, bacteria symbiotically associated with insect pathogenic nematodes of the families Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae . Journal of General Microbiology 128: 3061.
Bowen, D. 1998. Insecticidal toxins from the bacterium Photorhabdus luminescens. Science 280 : 2129.
Fang, X. L., Feng, J.T., Zhang, W. G., Wang, Y. H. and Zhang, X. 2010. Optimization of growth medium and fermentation conditions for improved antibiotic activity of Xenorhabdus nematophila TB using a statistical approach. African Journal of Biotechnology: 9: 8068-8077.
Gualtieri, M. 2009. Identification of a new antimicrobial lysine-rich cyclolipopeptide family from Xenorhabdus nematophila. Journal of Antibiotics 62: 295.
Ji, D. 2004. Identification of an antibacterial compound, benzylideneacetone, from Xenorhabdus nematophila against major plant-pathogenic bacteria. FEMS Microbiology Letters 239: 241.
Li, J.X. 1995. Antimicrobial metabolites from a bacterial symbiont. Journal of Natural Products-Lloydia 58: 1081.
Li, J.X. 1997. Nematophin, a novel antimicrobial substance produced by Xenorhabdus nematophilus (Enterobactereaceae). Canadian Journal of Microbiology 43: 770.
Mcinerney, B.V. 1991. Biologically-active metabolites from Xenorhabdus spp .1. dithiolopyrrolone derivatives with antibiotic-activity. Journal of Natural Products 54: 774.
Mcinerney, B.V. 1991. Biologically-active metabolites from Xenorhabdus spp.2. BENZOPYRAN-1-ONE derivatives with gastroprotective activity. Journal of Natural Products 54: 785.
Paul, V.J. 1981. Antibiotics in microbial ecology - isolation and structure assignment of several new anti-bacterial compounds from the insect-symbiotic bacteria Xenorhabdus Spp. Journal of Chemical Ecology 7: 589.
Wang, Y.H. 2008. Enhanced antibiotic activity of Xenorhabdus nematophila by medium optimization. Bioresource Technology 99: 1708.
Yang , X.F., Qiu, D.W., Yang, H.W., Liu, Z., Zeng, H.M. and Yuan, J.J. 2011. Antifungal activity of xenocoumacin 1 from Xenorhabdus nematophilus var. pekingensis against Phytophthora infestans . World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 27: 523-528.
Plants can call entomopathogenic nematodes to attack their insect enemies /
It has been demonstrated that entomopathogenic nematodes are attracted to herbivore-induced volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from plants when fed upon by their insect pests. Thus these attracted nematodes can attack and kill the insects present in the vicinity of plants. Please read following papers for more information on VOCs released by plants and nematode attraction.
Ali, J.G., Alborn, H.T. and Stelinski, L.L. 2011. Constitutive and induced subterranean plant volatiles attract both entomopathogenic and plant parasitic nematodes. Journal of Ecology 99: 26-35.
Rasmann, S., Erwin, A.C., Halitschke, R. and Agrawal, A.A. 2011. Direct and indirect root defenses of milkweed (Asclepias syriaca): trophic cascades, trade-offs and novel methods for studying subterranean herbivory. Journal of Ecology 99: 16-25.
Compatibility of entomopathogenic nematodes with chemical pesticides /
Recently, Radova (2011) reported that the chemical pesticide fenpyroximate showed no adverse effect on virulence of entomopathogenic nematode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora but it reduced the virulence of Steinernema feltiae against the insect called mealworm Tenebrio molitor under laboratory conditions. For more information, read following papers on related topics
Garcia-Del-Pino, F. and Morton, A. 2010. Synergistic effect of the herbicides glyphosate and MCPA on survival of entomopathogenic nematodes Biocontrol Science and Technology. 20: 483-488.
Gutierrez, C., Campos-Herrera, R. and Jimenez, J. 2008. Comparative study of the effect of selected agrochemical products on Steinernema feltiae (Rhabditida : Steinernematidae). Biocontrol Science and Technology. 18: 101-108.
Negrisoli, A.S., Garcia, M.S., Negrisoli, C.R.C.B. 2010a. Compatibility of entomopathogenic nematodes (Nematoda: Rhabditida) with registered insecticides for Spodoptera frugiperda (Smith, 1797) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) under laboratory conditions. Crop Protection 29: 545-549.
Negrisoli, A.S., Garcia, M.S., Negrisoli, C.R.C.B., Bernardi, D. and da Silva, A. 2010b. Efficacy of entomopathogenic nematodes (Nematoda: Rhabditida) and insecticide mixtures to control Spodoptera frugiperda (Smith, 1797) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in corn. Crop Protection. 29: 677-683.
Radova, S. 2011. Effects of selected pesticides on survival and virulence of two nematode species. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies. 20: 181-185.
Biological control of the lesser peachtree borer (Synanthedon pictipes) /
The lesser peachtree borer, Synanthedon pictipes is a serious pest of commercially grown peach (Prunus spp.), orchards. It has been demonstrated that this insect pest can be controlled using entomopathogenic nematodes including Steinernema carpocapsae, S. riobrave and Heterorhabditis spp. Please read following article for interaction between the lesser peachtree borer and entomopathogenic nematodes.
<
Cottrell, T. E., Shapiro-Ilan, D. I., Horton, D. L., and Mizell, R. F., III. 2011. Laboratory virulence and orchard efficacy of entomopathogenic nematodes against the lesser peach tree borer (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae). Journal of Economic entomology 104: 47-53.
Damage caused by Japanese beetles /
Click following links to read about Japanese beetles and the damage caused by them to many plant species. This insect can be controlled by using entomopathogenic nematodes. http://www.ca.uky.edu/entomology/entfacts/ef451.asp
http://www.landscape-america.com/problems/insects/japanese_beetle.html
http://ipm.illinois.edu/fieldcrops/insects/japanese_beetles/
http://www.turf.msu.edu/japanese-beetle
http://urbanext.illinois.edu/turf/whitegrub.html
Links to interaction between entomopathogenic nematodes and japanese beetles
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9784356
http://esa.confex.com/esa/2007/techprogram/paper_32669.htm
http://www.entomology.wisc.edu/mbcn/nema508.html
What are Plant-parasitic nematodes? /
Nematodes are usually microscopic, thread-like, colorless and non-segmented roundworms without any appendages. There are harmful (e.g., plant- and animal-parasitic) and beneficial (e.g., entomopathogenic) nematodes. Plant-parasitic nematodes generally cause damage to crops and many other types of plants. Although majority of plant-parasitic nematodes are root feeders, they have different types of association with plants. For example, the root-knot (Meloidogyne sp) and cyst (Heterodera sp.) nematodes have endoparasitic association meaning they live and feed within the tissue of roots, tubers, buds, seeds. Nematodes including stuby-root (Trichodorus sp.), dagger (Xiphinema sp), needle (Longidorus sp), ring (Criconemella sp), stunt (Tylenchorhynchus sp), pin (Paratylenchus sp), and spiral (Helicotylenchus sp) have ectoparasitic association meaning they feed externally on roots through their walls. Some of the nematodes like the reniform (Rotylenchulus reniformis) have semi-endoparasitic association meaning these nematodes feed on the roots by penetrating their anterior (head) region into root tissue and leaving their posterior (tail) region remains outside of the root.
Biological control of Scarab larvae, Phyllophaga bicolor with entomopathogenic nematodes /
It has been reported that the heterorhabditis nematodes were more virulent than steinernematid nematodes against larvae Phyllophaga bicolor (Melo et al., 2010). Read following paper for more information.
Melo, E.L, Ortega, C.A., Gaigl, A. and Bellotti, A. 2010. Evaluation of entomopathogenic nematodes for the management of Phyllophaga bicolor (Coleoptera: Melolonthidae). Revista Colombiana de Entomologia 36: 207-212.
Control of cockroaches using entomopathogenic nematodes /
It has been reported that entomopathogenic nematodes can be used as biological control agent to manage species of the American (Periplaneta americana) and the German (Blattella germanica) cockroaches. Read following paper for more information
Maketon, M., Hominchan, A. and Hotaka, D. 2010. Control of American cockroach (Periplaneta americana) and German cockroach (Blattella germanica) by entomopathogenic nematodes. Revista Colombiana de Entomologia 36: 249-253.
Biological control of codling moth, Cydia pomonella with entomopathogenic nematodes /
It has been demonstrated that the Entomopathogenic nematodes including Steinernema carpocapsae and Steinernema feltiae have a potential to use as effective biological control agent against diapausing cocooned codling moth, Cydia pomonella larvae in miniature fruit bins. Read following paper for more information on efficacy of entomopathogenic nematodes against codling moth
Lacey, L.A., Neven, L.G., Headrick, H.L., Fritts, R. 2005. Factors affecting entomopathogenic nematodes (Steinerneniatidae) for control of overwintering codling moth (Lepidoptera : Tortricidae) in fruit bins. Journal of Economic Entomology 98: 1863-1869.
Entomopatogenic nematodes are compatible with many insecticides /
Recently, Negrisoli et al. (2010) demonstrated that entomopathogenic nematodes including Heterorhabditis indica, Steinernema carpocapsae and Steinernema glaseri were found to be compatible with many insecticides including chlorpyrifos, deltamethrin, lufenuron, deltramethrin + triazophos, diflubenzuron, gamacyhalothrin, lambdacyhalothrin, spinosad, cypermethrin, triflumuron, and permethrin under laboratory conditions. Read following paper for more information compatibility of entomopathogenic nematodes with insecticides.
Negrisoli, A.S., Garcia, M.S., Negrisoli, C.R.C.B. 2010. Compatibility of entomopathogenic nematodes (Nematoda: Rhabditida) with registered insecticides for Spodoptera frugiperda (Smith, 1797) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) under laboratory conditions. Crop Protection 29: 545-549.
Biological control of fall army worm (Spodoptera frugiperda) an insect pest of corn /
Recently, Andalo, et al. (2010) demonstrated that the entomopathogenic nematodes Steinernema arenarium and Heterorhabditis sp. can kill over 80% larvae of fall army worm, Spodoptera frugiperda under both laboratory and greenhouse condition. Read following paper for the information on the effect of entomopathogenic nematodes on fall army worm.
Andalo, V., Santos, V., Moreira, G.F., Moreira, C.C. and Moino, A. 2010. Evaluation of entomopathogenic nematodes under laboratory and greenhouses conditions for the control of Spodoptera frugiperda Ciencia Rural 40: 1860-1866.
Insect blood clotting can prevent infection by entomopathogenic nematodes /
Recently, Hyrsl et al. (2011) demonstrated that the common fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster as an immune response can form the blood (hemolymph) clots and protect against infection by an entomopathogenic nematode (Heterorhabditis bacteriophora) and its symbiotic bacterium (Photorhabdus luminescens). Read following papers for more information on the interaction between fruit fly and entomopathogenic nematodes.
Hyrsl, P., Dobes, P., Wang, Z., Hauling, T., Wilhelmsson, C. and Theopold, U. 2011. Clotting Factors and Eicosanoids Protect against Nematode Infections. Journal of Innate Immunity 3: 65-70.
Quantitative real-time PCR techniques for detecting and quantifying entomopathogenic nematodes from the soil samples /
Recently, a quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) technique has been developed by Campos-Herrera et al (2011) for detecting and quantifying entomopathogenic nematodes including Steinernema diaprepesi, Steinernema riobrave, Heterorhabditis indica, Heterorhabditis zealandica, Heterorhabditis floridensis and an undescribed species in the S. glaseri group from soil samples. Read following paper for a detail protocol of quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) technique
Campos-Herrera, R., Johnson, E. G, El-Borai, F. E., Stuart, R. J., Graham, J. H. and Duncan, L. W.2011. Long-term stability of entomopathogenic nematode spatial patterns in soil as measured by sentinel insects and real-time PCR. Annals of Applied Biology 158: 55-68.
A report of entomopathogenic nematodes from Iran /
A survey conducted during 2006 and 2008 showed the presence of both heterorhabditid and steinernematid nematodes in the Arasbaran forests and rangelands, Iran. Based on both morphological and molecular characteristics, heterorhabditid isolates were identified as Heterorhabditis bacteriophora whereas the steinernematid isolates were identified as Steinerenma carpocapsae, S. bicornutum, S. feltiae, S. glaseri, S. kraussei. For more information on the survey methodology nematode identification techniques read following paper.
Nikdel, M., Niknam, G., Griffin, C.T. and Kary, N.E. 2010. Diversity of entomopathogenic nematodes (Nematoda: Steinernematidae, Heterorhabditidae) from Arasbaran forests and rangelands in north-west Iran. Nematology 12: 767-773.
Entomopathogenic nematodes as biological control agents for sheep lice, Bovicola ovis /
Biological control of sheep lice, Bovicola ovis with entomopathogenic nematodes Four entomopathogenic nematodes including Steinernema carpocapsae, Steinernema riobrave, Steinernema feltiae and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora have showed a very high efficacy against sheep lice, Bovicola ovis when tested under laboratory conditions at different incubation temperatures (James et al., 2010). However, the efficacy all the four species of entomopathogenic nematodes varied with the nematode species and incubation temperature.
For more information on the interaction between entomopathogenic nematodes and sheep lice read following paper.
James, P. J., Hook, S.E. and Pepper, P. M. 2010. In vitro infection of sheep lice (Bovicola ovis Schrank) by Steinernematid and Heterorhabditid nematodes. Veterinary Parasitology 174: 85-91.
Control of noxious social insects with entomopathogenic nematodes /
Social insects including ants, termites and wasps can sting and cause harm to people. Termites and some species of ants are considered as serious pests of many crops and wooden structures (e. g. houses). Wasp insects including yellowjackets can be dangerous to people and domestic animals because of their ability to sting. Red imported fire ants (Solenopsis spp.) can cause serious injuries to people and animals. Insect-parasitic nematodes have a potential to use as biological control agents to kill these noxious social insects. It has been demonstrated that two insect-parasitic nematodes including Steinernema carpocapase, S. feltiae and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora can cause over 70% mortality of yellowjacket, Vespula pensylvanica under laboratory conditions (Gambino, 1984; Guzman, 1984). Steinernema carpocapsae can cause over 60% mortality of fire ants under laboratory conditions (Drees et al., 1992). It has been reported that S. feltiae when applied at the rate of 1,500,000 infective juveniles/nest can cause over 97% mortality of termites, Coptotermes formosanus and Reticulitermes speratus ( Wu et al., 1991). According to Wang et al (2002), both H. indica and H. bacteriophora were capable of infecting and killing termites, C. formosanus and R. flavipes in petri dish tests.
Please read following papers for more information on interaction between social insects and insect-parasitic nematodes.
Drees, B.M., Miller, R.W., Vinson, S.B. and Georgis, R. 1992. Susceptibility and behavioral response of of red imported fire ant (Hymenoptera: formicidae) to selected entomogenous nematodes (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae & Heterorhabditidae). Journal of Economic Entomology. 85: 365-370.
Gambino, P. 1984. Susceptibility of western yellowjacket, Vespula pensylvanica to three species of three entomogenous nematodes. International Research Communications System Medical Science: Microbiology, Parasitology and Infectious Diseases. 12: 264.
Guzman, R.F. 1984. Preliminary evaluation of the potential of Steinernema feltiae for controlling Vespula germanica. New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 11: 100.
Wang, C., Powell, J.E. and Nguyen, K. 2002. Laboratory Evaluation of four entomopathogenic nematodes for control of subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Environmental Entomology. 31: 381-387.
Wu, H.J., Wang, Z.N., Ou, C.F., Tsai, R.S. and Chow, Y.S. 1991. Susceptibility of two Formosan termites to the entomogenous nematode Steinernema feltiae Filipjev. Bulletin of the institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica. 30: 31-39.
Control grape root borer, Vitacea polistiformis with beneficial nematodes /
The grape root borer, Vitacea polistiformis is one of economically important pests of grapes in eastern USA. Larva stages of this insect feed on grape roots and can cause severe economic damage to the commercial grape industry by killing entire vineyards. Beneficial nematodes have potential to use as biological control agent to target both larval and pupal stages of root borers. It has been demonstrated that the beneficial nematodes including Heterorhabditis bacteriophora, H. zealandica and Steinernema carpocapsae can cause over 70% mortality of grape root borer larvae under laboratory conditions (Williams et al., 2002). Read following paper for more information on interaction between beneficial nematodes and grape root borer.
Williams, R.N., Fickle, D.S., Grewal, P.S. and Meyer, J.R. 2002. Assessing the potential of entomopathogenic nematodes to control the grape root borer, Vitacea polistifirmis (Lepidiptera: Sesiidae) thorough laboratory bioassays. Biocontrol Science and Technology. 12: 35-42.