Bugs for growers: Predatory Mites

Bugs for growers Predatory mites: All natural enemies of insect pests are considered as good bugs because they can kill and feed on insect pests that cause tremendous yield losses to many economically important crops. Since many of these natural enemies are commercially produced and used in the integrated pest management program (IPM), they are called as biological control agents. These biological control agents also includes predatory mites, which are closely related to spiders but they are not considered as insects. Although some species of mites are predatory in nature, there are several species of mites considered as pests because they cause a serious damage to many plant species. In general, predatory mites feed on spider mites, which are serious pests of many vegetable crops and ornamental plants. Predator mites also prey on thrips, fungus gnat eggs and other small soft bodied insects. Predatory mites are commercially available and used as biological control agents against many species of spider mites and fungus gnats in the Canadian, European, USA greenhouses.

Following are the examples of predatory mites that can be used as biological control agents against many kinds of insect pests.

Euseius tularensis: This predatory mite often found in citrus orchards and generally feed on citrus thrips and red mites.  Color of E. tularensis depends on the type of insect host they feed on. They are red, when they are feeding on red spider mites, yellow when they are feeding on thrips. These predatory mites also feed on scale insects, nymphs of white flies and two-spotted mites. This predatory mites are not available commercially.

Western predatory mite, Galendromus occidentalis: This predatory mite generally found in apple, cherry, peach, pear, and plum orchards. These pear shaped predatory mites generally feed on apple rust mites, blister mites, European red mites, yellow spider mites, pear and prunus rust mites and two-spotted spider mites. This important biocontrol agent is available commercially.

Galendromus pyri: This predatory mite is also found in many fruit orchards. This predatory mite also feeds on Apple rust mite, European red mites and two-spotted spider mites. These predatory mites are available commercially.

Neoseiulus fallacis: This pear shaped predatory mite found in many fruit orchards in the USA and also feeds on European red mites and two-spotted spider mites. These predatory mites are available commercially.

Phytoseiulus persimilis: This predatory mite is commercially available and most often used as biological control agents against different species of spider mites infesting vegetable crops and ornamental plants grown in the Canadian, European, US greenhouses.

Zetzellia mali: This pear shaped predatory found in many fruit orchards in the USA and also feeds on European red mites and two-spotted spider mites. These predatory mites are not available commercially.

Use Good Bugs to Control Bad Bugs: Predatory insects

Before starting to write about this topic, I would like to make it clear that taxonomically all bugs are insects but all the insects are not bugs. As far as I know, both in the USA and Canada, almost all people except entomologists call each and every insect as a bug.  Even extension entomologists when they are giving extension seminars to farmers/growers about insect pests of different crops, they often refer them as bad bugs for the understanding of growers. "True" bugs are mainly belong to two insect orders including Hemiptera and Homoptera. All natural enemies of insect pests are considered as good bugs because they can kill and feed on insect pests that cause tremendous yield losses to many economically important crops. Since many of these natural enemies are commercially produced and used in the integrated pest management program (IPM), they are called as biological control agents. These biological control agents can be parasitic or predatory insects.  In addition to these predators and parasites (good bugs), there are some microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, protozoa and viruses that can cause diseases and kill insect pests.  These microorganisms are termed as insect pathogens and also considered as biological control agents. Nematodes belonging to two families, Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae are also considered as insect parasites or pathogens and used as biological agents in controlling many soil dwelling insect pests of many economically important crops (in this blog, please read several posts that are devoted to insect- parasitic nematodes). Furthermore, mites are closely related to spiders but not considered as insects. Some species of mites are predatory in nature but others are serious pests of many plant species.

Predators: Although, there are many kinds of vertebrate predators including birds, amphibians, reptiles, fish and mammals that feed on insects, in this blog I am going to focus on the predatory insects that are generally used in biological control programs. These insects are called predators because they feed and complete their entire life cycle by remaining outside of their prey host as opposed to parasites that complete at least part of their life cycle inside their hosts.  Predators are generally larger than their prey, they kill and feed on both immature and adult stages of many different kinds of hosts.

Following are the examples of insect predators that can be used as biological control agents against many kinds of insect pests.

Aphid midge (Aphidoletes aphidimyza): This predatory midge fly often found in many vegetable crops (potatoes, cabbage and cauliflower), fruit orchards (apple, blueberries and peaches) and many ornamental plants throughout North America. The larval stages of this midge fly are mainly predators of aphids. This midge fly is commercially available and widely used as biocontrol agents in the greenhouses against over 60 species of aphids infesting both vegetable and ornamental plants.

Bigeyed bug (Geocoris spp.): There are four most common species of bigeyed bug (G. punctipes, G. pallens, G. bullatus and G. uliginosus) found in almost all cropping systems in North America.  Bigeyed bugs generally feed on many small insects including aphids, mites and whiteflies, eggs and nymphs of many plant bugs. They can also feed on eggs and small larval stages of cotton ballworms, pink ballworms and tobacco budworms. Since this bug is very susceptible to broad spectrum pesticides, care should be taken to avoid killing of this important biocontrol agent.  This predator is commercially available from insectories in the USA.

Brown lacewings (Hemerobius stigma): These lacewings found throughout North American forests and are mainly predators of aphids and many other soft-bodied small insects including balsam woolly adelgis (Adelges piceae), pine bark adelgid (Pineus strobi) and Cooley's spruce gall adelgid (Adelges cooleyi). These lacewings are not commercially available.

Deraeocoris bug (Deraeocoris nebulosus): This is a very important predator of many insect and mite pests different agricultural, horticultural and landscape plants in the Canada and USA. This is a true predatory bug, which is generally found in many fruit orchards including apple, peach and pecan.  They also found in cotton fields and many landscape settings.  These bugs are natural enemies of many small insects including aphids, lace bugs, psyllids, scales and whiteflies. They also feed on mites. These bugs are not commercially available.

Dragon and damselflies: Adult dragon and damsel flies generally feed on small flying small adult insects including midge flies, mayflies, mosquitoes, ants and termites in the air where as dragon/damsel fly nymphs feed on mosquito larvae in the water.

Green lacewing (Chrysoperla carnea, C. rufilabris): Lacewings adults are not predatory in nature but mainly feed on nectar, honeydew and pollens.  However, larvae of lacewings are predatory in nature and feed on insect pests of many crops including apples, asparagus, cotton, corn, cole crops, eggplants, leafy vegetables, potatoes, tomatoes, peppers and strawberries. Lacewing larvae generally prey on aphids, leafhopper eggs, eggs of butterflies and moths, mealybugs, mites, thrips, small larvae of beetles and moths. Both species of lacewings are commercially available and sold in all stages (eggs, larvae and adults).

Ladybird beetles (Hippodamia parenthesis and Harmonia axyridis): These beetles are also recognized as lady beetles or ladybugs and more than 450 of this beetles have been reported from North America. Both larval and adult stages of this predator found on many agricultural and ornamental plants and they primarily feed on aphids. In addition, they can feed on small insects, mites, scales, thrips and eggs of many moths and beetles. they can eat nectar or pollen if insect hosts are not around. These predators are now commercially available to use against many crop pests, especially aphids.

Lebia beetles (Lebia grandis): These beetles are natural enemies of Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata. Adults of the predatory insect can feed on all immature stages of colorado potato beetle. Larval stages of Labia beetles are generally parasitic in nature and therefore, they are considered as ectoparasites of larval and pupal stages of colorado potato beetles. These predators are not commercially produced.

Pirate bugs (Orius spp.): Both adults and nymphs of these predatory insects have a sharp, needle-like beak that they use to suck body content of their prey. These insects found in many crops including alfalfa, corn, cotton, pea, peanuts, and strawberries. These are predators of aphids, mites, thrips, small larval stages of many insects, eggs of many different kinds of insects. These insect predators are commercially available in the USA and most often suscessfully used as biocontrol agents in controlling greenhouse pests.

Rove beetles (Aleochara bilineata): These beetles naturally found in many vegetable crops including onions, different cole crops, turnip, radish and sweet corn.  Rove beetle adults are predatory in nature but their larval stages are parasitic in nature. Rove beetles generally feed on egg, larval and pupal stages of onion and cabbage maggots. These insects are not commercially available.

Soldier beetles (Chauliognathus marginatus and C. pennsylvanicus): These beetles are also called leatherwing beetle because of texture of their wings. Larvae of this insect mainly feed on grasshopper eggs, both adult and nymphal stages of aphids, soft bodied larvae of many insects (cutworms, gypsy moths) whereas adults mainly feed on adult aphids and other soft bodied insects. These predators also feed on snails and slugs. These insects are not pest any plant species but they can eat nector or pollen if insect hosts are not around.

Spined soldier bug (Podisus maculiventris): This is a "true bug" that also named as a stink bug because it emits a strong stinky odour when disturbed. Like Pirate bugs, this bug also uses its sharp beak to suck the body content of its prey. This predator feeds on immature stages of many insect pests including beet armyworm, cabbage loopers, cabbageworm, colorado potato beetle, corn earworm, diamond backmoth, Eropean corn borer, fall armyworms, flea beetles, Mexican bean beetle and velvetbean caterpillars. These insect predators are commercially available.

VOTiVO: A new biological control Product from Bayer CropScience for plant-parasitic nematode control

Recently, Bayer CropScience, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina announced that the company will launch a new Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) based biological seed treatment product called "VOTiVO" for the biological control of different species of plant-parasitic nematodes that are responsible for reducing yields of several economically important crops. For more information on this product please visit following links: www.plantmanagementnetwork.org/pub/php/news/2009/VOTiVO/ www.VOTiVO.us

A record of new entomopathogenic nematode species from China

An entomopathogenic nematode in the soil samples that collected from the northern part of the Yunnan province of China was described using both morphological and molecular characteristics as new species "Steinernema xueshannense"  (Mracek et al., 2009). Reference:

Mracek, Z., Liu, Q., Nguyen, K. B. 2009. Steinernema xueshanense n. sp (Rhabditida, Steinernematidae), a new species of entomopathogenic nematode from the province of Yunnan, southeast Tibetan Mts., China. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology. 102: 69-78.

Entomopathogenic Nematodes as excellent biocontrol agents

Both Steinernematid and Heterorhabditid nematodes are considered as excellent biocontrol agents against soil dwelling insect pests of many economically important crops.  This is because they have a broad host range, the ability to search actively for hosts, the ability to kill their hosts rapidly within 24-48 hours, the potential to recycle in the soil environment, no deleterious effects on humans, other vertebrate animals, non-target organisms and plants and no negative effects on environment.  In addition these insect parasitic nematodes can be easily mass produced using both in vivo and in vitro methods and applied using traditional insecticide spraying equipments.  Since these nematodes are compatible with many chemical insecticides and biopesticides, they are easily included in IPM programs. Entomopatogenic nematodes also been been exempted from registration and regulation requirement by US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and similar agencies in many other countries.

List of insects susceptible to various species of entomopathogenic nematodes

Insect Species: Entomopathogenic nematode species

Ø Apopka weevil (Diaprepes abbreviatus): S. carpocapsae All strain

Ø Armyworm (Heliothis armigera): S. carpocapsae All strain

Ø Billbugs (Sphenophorus purvulus): H. bacteriophora & S. carpocapsae All strain

Ø Black vine weevil (Otiorhynchus salcatus): S. carpocapsae All & UK strains, S. feltiae, S. glaseri & H. megidis UK 211 strain

Ø Blue grass weevil (Listronotus maculicollis): H. bacteriophora & S. carpocapsae

Ø Carpenter worms (Cossus cossus): S. carpocapsae

Ø Carrot weevil (Listronotus oregonensis): S. feltiae

Ø Cat fleas (Ctenocephalides felis): S. carpocapsae

Ø Citrus root weevil (Pachnaeus litus): S. carpocapsae All strain

Ø Clover root weevil (Sitona hispidulus): S. feltiae & H. bacteriophora

Ø Codling moth (Cydia pomonella): S. carpocapsae

Ø Crane flies (Tipula spp.): S. carpocapsae & H. megidis

Ø Cutworms (Agrotis ipsilon, A. segetum): S. carpocapsae All strain

Ø Dog fleas (Ctenocephalides cannis): S. carpocapsae

Ø Face fly (Musca autumnalis): S. carpocapsae, H. bacteriophora & S. feltiae

Ø Fall web worms (Hyphantria cunea): S. carpocapsae

Ø Flea beetles (Phyllotreta spp.): S. carpocapsae

Ø Fungus gnats (Bradysis spp.): H. bacteriophora, H. indica, H. zealandica, S. anomali, S. carpocapsae, S. feltiae SN strain & S. riobrave

Ø House flies (Musca domestica): S. carpocapsae, H. bacteriophora & S. feltiae

Ø Hunting billbug (Sphenophorus venatus venatus): S. carpocapsae All strain

Ø Japanese beetle (Popillia japonica): H. bacteriophora, H. indica, H. marelata, H. megidis, H. zealandica, S. anomali, S. carpocapsae, S. feltiae, S. glaseri, S. kushidai, S. riobrave, S. scapterisci & S. scarabae

Ø Leaf minors (Liriomyza trifolii): S. carpocapsae & S. feltiae

Ø Leopard moth (Zeuzera pyrina): S. carpocapsae

Ø Mole crickets (Gryllotapla gryllotapla): S. riobravis & S. scapterisci

Ø Peach borer moth (Synanthedon exitiosa): S. carpocapsae

Ø Pecan weevil (Curculio caryae): H. bacteriophora

Ø Pine weevil (Hylobius abietis): S. carpocapsae, S. feltiae & H. downesi

Ø Plum weevil (Conotrachelus nenuphar): S. riobrave 355 strain

Ø Shore flies (Scatella stagnalis): H. megidis, S. carpocapsae, S. feltiae & S. anomaly

Ø Sod webworm (Herpetogramma phaeopteralis): S. carpocapsae All strain

Ø Stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans): S. carpocapsae, H. bacteriophora & S. feltiae

Ø Strawberry root borer (Nemocestes incomptus): S. carpocapsae

Ø Sugarcane borer (Diaprepes abbreviatus): S. carpocapsae All strain

Ø Sweet potato weevil (Cylasformicarius elegantulus): S. carpocapsae All strain & H. bacteriophora HP88 strain

Ø Western flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis): H. bacteriophora, H. indica, H. marelata, S. abassi, S. arenarium, S. bicornutum, S. carpocapsae, S. feltiae

Ø White grubs (Amphimallon solstitiale): S. glaseri

Ø White grubs (Anomala orientalis): H. bacteriophora, H. megidis, H. zealandica, S. carpocapsae, S. glaseri, S. longicaudum, S. scarabae

Ø White grubs (Ataenius spretulus): H. bacteriophora, S. glaseri & S. scarabae

Ø White grubs (Costelytra zealandica): H. bacteriophora & S. glaseri

Ø White grubs (Cotinus nitida): H. bacteriophora, S. carpocapsae, S. feltiae, S. glaseri & S. scarabae

Ø White grubs (Cyclocephala borealis): H. bacteriophora, H. indica, H. marelata, H. megidis, H. zealandica, S. glaseri & S. scarabae

Ø White grubs (Cyclocephala hirta): H. bacteriophora, H. megidis, S. carpocapsae, S. feltiae, S. glaseri, S. kushidai, S. riobrave & S. scarabae

Ø White grubs (Cyclocephala lurida): H. bacteriophora, S. glaseri & S. scarabae

Ø White grubs (Cyclocephala pasadenae): H. bacteriophora, S. glaseri, S. kushidai & S. scarabae

Ø White grubs (Hoplia philanthus): H. megidis, S. feltiae & S. glaseri

Ø White grubs (Maladera castanea): H. bacteriophora, S. glaseri & S. scarabae

Ø White grubs (Melolontha melolontha): H. bacteriophora, H. marelata, H. megidis, S. arenaria, S. feltiae, S. glaseri & S. riobrave

Ø White grubs (Phyllophaga congrua): H. bacteriophora, S. glaseri & S. scarabae

Ø White grubs (Phyllophaga crinita): H. bacteriophora, S. glaseri & S. scarabae

Ø White grubs (Phyllophaga georgiana): H. bacteriophora, S. glaseri & S. scarabae

Ø White grubs (Rhizotrogus majalis): H. bacteriophora, H. megidis, H. zealandica, S. carpocapsae, S. feltiae, S. glaseri & S. scarabae

For more information on insect pathogenic nematodes read following books:

Ø Nematodes As Biocontrol Agents by Grewal, P.S. Ehlers, R.-U., Shapiro-Ilan, D. (eds.). CAB publishing, CAB International, Oxon.

Ø Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Biological Control by Gaugler, R. and Kaya, H. K. (eds.), CRC Press, Boca Raton

Ø Entomopathogenic Nematology by Gaugler, R. (Ed.), CABI

Use entomopathogenic nematodes to manage plant-parasitic nematodes

• For the last several decades, entomopathogenic nematodes have been successfully used for the management of insect pests of many economically important crops (Grewal et al., 2005).
• As an additional benefit, several researchers including Fallon et al. (2002), Gouge et al. (1997), Grewal et al. (1997; 1999), Jagdale et al. (2002), Jagdale and Grewal (2008), LaMondia and Cowles (2002), Lewis et al. (2001), Lewis and Grewal (2005), Molina et al. (2007), Nyczepir et al. (2004), Perez and Lewis (2002), Perry et al. (1998) and Shapiro et al. (2006) have demonstrated that entomopathogenic nematodes can also be used as biological control agents to control plant-parasitic nematodes infesting different crops in the fields and greenhouses .
• To control plant- parasitic nematodes, entomopathogenic nematodes can be applied using standard spraying equipments used for application of chemical pesticides.
• Entomopathogenic nematodes are generally applied against plant-parasitic nematodes at the rate of 1 billion infective juveniles per acre but this rate can vary with both entomopathogenic nematode and plant- parasitic nematode species,
• Following are the examples of different species of entomopathogenic nematode that found to be successful in suppressing the population of different species of plant- parasitic nematodes.
• Steinernema carpocapsae can reduce the population of ring nematodes (Mesocriconema spp., Criconemoides spp.) by 65%.
• S. carpocapsae can reduce the population of stubby root nematodes (Paratrichodorus spp.) by 60%.
• S. carpocapsae can reduce the population of potato cyst nematodes (Globodera rostochiensis).
• S. carpocapsae can reduce the populations of foliar nematode Aphelenchoides fragariae
• Steinernema riobrave can reduce the population of stunt nematodes (Tylenchorynchu spp.) by 85%.
• S. riobrave can reduce the population of lance nematodes (Hoplolaimus spp.).
• S. riobrave can reduce the population of root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) by 83%.
• S. riobrave reduced egg masses of root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.)
• S. riobrave can reduce the population of sting nematodes (Belonolaimus longocaudatus).
• Steinernema feltiae can inhibit hatching root-knot nematode eggs and infection by hatched infective juveniles of root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.).
• S. feltiae reduced egg masses of root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) .
• S. feltiae can reduce the population of root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.).
• Steinernema glaseri reduced egg masses of root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.)
• Heterorhabditis bacteriophora can reduce the population of ring nematodes (Mesocriconema spp., Criconemoides spp.) by 80%.
• H. bacteriophora can reduce the population of stunt nematodes (Tylenchorynchus spp.) by 60%.
• H. bacteriophora can reduce the population of lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus pratensis).
• H. baujardi can inhibit hatching root-knot nematode eggs and infection by hatched infective juveniles of root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne mayaguensis).

e Read following literature for more information on interaction between entomopathogenic nematodes and plant- parasitic nematodes:

1. Fallon, D.J., Kaya, H.K., Gaugler, R., Sipes, B.S., 2002. Effects of entomopathogenic nematodes on Meloidogyne javanica on tomatoes and soybeans. Journal of Nematology 34, 239-245.

2. Fallon, D.J., Kaya, H.K., Sipes, B.S., 2006. Enhancing Steinernema spp. suppression of Meloidogyne javanica. Journal of Nematology 38, 270-271.

3. Grewal, P.S., Ehlers, R.-U., Shapiro-Ilan, D.I. (Eds.), 2005. Nematodes As Biocontrol Agents. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Oxon, U.K.,

4. Grewal, P.S., Lewis, E.E., Venkatachari, S., 1999. Allelopathy: a possible mechanism of suppression of plant-parasitic nematodes by entomopathogenic nematodes. Nematology. 1, 735-743.

5. Grewal, P.S., Martin, W.R., Miller, R.W., Lewis E.E., 1997. Suppression of plant-parasitic nematode populations in turfgrass by application of entomopathogenic nematodes. Biocontrol Science and Technology 7, 393-399.

6. Jagdale, G.B., Grewal, P.S., 2008. Influence of the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema carpocapsae in host cadavers or extracts from cadavers on the foliar nematode Aphelenchoides fragariae on Hosta. Biological Control 44, 13-23.

7. Jagdale, G.B., Somasekhar, N., Grewal, P.S., Klein, M.G., 2002. Suppression of plant parasitic nematodes by application of live and dead entomopathogenic nematodes on Boxwood (Buxus spp). Biological Control. 24, 42-49.

8. Lewis, E.E., Grewal, P.S., 2005. Interactions with plant-parasitic nematodes. In: Grewal, P.S., Ehlers, R.-U., Shapiro-Ilan, D.I. (Eds.), Nematodes As Biocontrol Agents. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Oxon, U.K., pp. 349-362.

9. Perry, R.N., Homonick, W.M., Beane, J., Briscose, B., 1998. Effects of the entomopathogenic nematodes, Steinernema feltiae and S. carpocapsae, on the potato cyst nematode, Globodera rostochiensis, in pot trials. Biocontrol Science and Technology 8:175 – 180.

10. Shapiro, D.I., Nyczepir, A.P., Lewis, E.E., 2006. Entomopathogenic nematodes and bacteria applications for control of the pecan root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne partityla in the greenhouse. Journal of Nematology 38, 449-454.

Kill slugs and snails with parasitic nematode, Phasmarhabditis hermaprodita

Biological control of slugs and snails with parasitic nematode, Phasmarhabditis hermaprodita

• Slugs (Mollusca: Gastropoda) are considered as important pests of many agricultural and horticultural crops throughout the world.
• Recently, a slug parasitic nematode, P. hermaprodita has been commercialized as a biological molluscicide by MicroBio Ltd, UK and sold under the trade name "Nemaslug".
• Phasmarhabditis hermaprodita as been found to be associated with several different bacteria rather than one particular species but the association with a bacterium, Moraxella oslensis proved to be highly pathogenic to gray garden slug (Deroceras reticulatum) and preferred bacterium for mass production of this nematode in monoxenic culture.
• Like entomopathogenic nematodes, slug parasitic nematode infective juveniles or dauer juveniles move through soil, locate slugs and infect.  They penetrate slugs through a natural opening at the backside of the mantle. Once inside, the dauer juveniles release bacterial cells, start feeding on multiplying bacteria and develop into self-fertilizing hermaphrodites. Nematode- bacteria complex can cause the death of the slug within 7-21 days after infection.
• Phasmarhabditis hermaprodita can attack and kill several species of slugs including Arion ater, A. intermedius, A. distinctus, A. silvaticus, D. reticulatum, D. caruanae, Tandonia budapestensis and T. sowerbyi.
• Phasmarhabditis hermaprodita can also parasitize several species of snails including Cernuella virgata, Cochlicella acuta, Helis aspersa, Monacha cantiana, Lymnaea stagnalis and Theba pisana.
• It has been demonstrated that slug parasitic nematodes when applied at the rate of 3x 109 infective juveniles/hectare can give better control of slugs than standard chemical molluscicide, Methiocarb pellets.
• For more information on insect and slug parasitic nematodes read a book "Nematodes As Biocontrol Agents" by Grewal, P.S. Ehlers, R.-U., Shapiro-Ilan, D. (eds.). CAB publishing, CAB International, Oxon.

White grub species susceptible to entomopathogenic nematodes

Species of white grubs : Species of entompathogenic nematodes

1. Asiatic garden beetle (Maladera castanea): H. bacteriophora, S. glaseri, S. scarabae
2. Black turfgrass ataenius (Ataenius spretulus): H. bacteriophora, S. glaseri, S. scarabae
3. Cockchafer (Melolontha melolontha): H. bacteriophora, H. marelata, H. megidis, S arenaria, S. feltiae, S. glaseri, S. riobrave
4. Cranberry root grub (Phyllophaga Georgiana): H. bacteriophora, S. glaseri, S. scarabae
5. European chafer (Rhizotrogus majalis): H. bacteriophora, H. megidis, H. zealandica, S. carpocapsae, S. feltiae, S. glaseri, S. scarabae
6. Grass grub beetle (Costelytra zealandica): H. bacteriophora, S. glaseri
7. Green June beetle (Cotinus nitida): H. bacteriophora, S. carpocapsae, S. feltiae, S. glaseri, S. scarabae
8. Japanese beetle (Popillia japonica): H. bacteriophora, H. indica, H. marelata, H. megidis, H. zealandica, S. anomali, S. carpocapsae, S. feltiae, S. glaseri, S. kushidai, S. riobrave, S. scapterisci, S. scarabae
9. Masked Chafer (Cyclocephala pasadenae): H. bacteriophora, S. glaseri, S. kushidai, S. scarabae
10. Northern Masked Chafer (Cyclocephala borealis): H. bacteriophora, H. indica, H. marelata, H. megidis, H. zealandica, S. glaseri, S. scarabae
11. Oriental beetle (Anomala orientalis): H. bacteriophora, H. megidis, H. zealandica, S. carpocapsae, S. glaseri, S. longicaudum, S. scarabae
12. Southern Masked Chafer (Cyclocephala lurida): H. bacteriophora, S. glaseri, S. scarabae
13. Southwestern Masked Chafer (Cyclocephala hirta): H. bacteriophora, H. megidis, S. carpocapsae, S. feltiae, S. glaseri, S. kushidai, S. riobrave, S. scarabae
14. Summer chafer (Amphimallon solstitiale): S. glaseri
15. White grub (Hoplia philanthus): H. megidis, S. feltiae, S. glaseri
16. White grub (Phyllophaga crinita): H. bacteriophora, S. glaseri, S. scarabae
17. White grub (Phyllophaga congrua): H. bacteriophora, S. glaseri, S. scarabae

For more information on insect pathogenic nematodes read book "Nematodes As Biocontrol Agents" by Grewal, P.S. Ehlers, R.-U., Shapiro-Ilan, D. (eds.). CAB publishing, CAB International, Oxon.

Entomopathogenic Nematodes are considered as excellent biocontrol agents

Why do entomopathogenic nematodes are considered as excellent biocontrol agents? Because they......

1. have a broad host range.
2. have the ability to search actively for hosts.
3. have the ability to kill their hosts rapidly within 24-48 hours.
4. have the potential to recycle in the soil environment.
5. have no deleterious effects on humans, other vertebrate animals, non-target organisms and plants.
6. have no negative effects on environment.
7. can be easily mass produced using both in vivo and in vitro methods.
8. can be easily applied using traditional insecticide spraying equipments.
9. are compatible with many chemical insecticides and biopesticides.
10. have been exempted from registration and regulation requirement by US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and similar agencies in many other countries.